Appendix B: Language
Summaries
Quick reference sheets for each language’s grammatical system, using
a comparable structure.
Structural Overview
Each language summary below follows the same format:
- Language Type — analytic vs. synthetic
- Word Order — basic sentence structure
- Case System — cases and their functions
- Gender System — grammatical genders
- Number System — singular, plural, etc.
- Article System — definite, indefinite, none
- Verb Features — conjugation, tense, mood,
voice
- Agreement Rules — what agrees with what
- Key Distinguishing Features — what makes this
language unique
English
1. Language Type
Analytic — relies on word order and function words
rather than inflection.
2. Word Order
| Type |
Order |
Example |
| Declarative |
SVO (fixed) |
The dog bit the man. |
| Question |
Aux-S-V-O |
Did the dog bite the man? |
| Subordinate |
SVO |
…that the dog bit the man |
3. Case System
| Case |
Where Found |
Example |
| Nominative |
Pronouns (subject) |
I, he, she, we, they, who |
| Accusative (Objective) |
Pronouns (object) |
me, him, her, us, them, whom |
| Genitive (Possessive) |
Pronouns; nouns with -’s |
my/mine, his, the king’s |
Note: Regular nouns do not change for case (except
genitive -’s).
4. Gender System
| Type |
Details |
| Grammatical gender |
None |
| Natural gender |
Pronouns only: he/she/it |
5. Number System
| Number |
Marking |
Example |
| Singular |
Unmarked |
book, child, ox |
| Plural |
-s, -es, or irregular |
books, children, oxen |
6. Article System
| Article |
Form |
Example |
| Definite |
the (invariable) |
the book, the books |
| Indefinite |
a/an (singular only) |
a book |
7. Verb Features
| Feature |
Details |
| Conjugation |
Minimal: only 3sg present -s |
| Tenses |
Present, past (+ compound tenses via auxiliaries) |
| Aspects |
Simple, progressive (be + -ing), perfect (have + past
part.) |
| Moods |
Indicative, imperative, subjunctive (rare: if I were) |
| Voices |
Active, passive (be + past part.) |
| Auxiliaries |
Essential: be, have, do, will, would, can, could, may, might,
shall, should, must |
8. Agreement Rules
| What Agrees |
With What |
Example |
| Verb (3sg -s) |
Subject (3sg) |
He writes |
| Pronoun |
Antecedent (natural gender) |
The doctor… she |
| Demonstrative |
Noun (number) |
this book / these books |
9. Key Distinguishing Features
- Do-support for questions and negatives: Did he come? He did not
come.
- Obligatory subject pronouns: **It* is raining* (not Is
raining)
- Strict word order compensates for lack of case marking
- Progressive aspect highly developed
- Phrasal verbs: look up, give in, put off
Spanish
1. Language Type
Moderately synthetic — significant verb inflection;
limited noun inflection.
2. Word Order
| Type |
Order |
Example |
| Declarative |
SVO (flexible) |
El perro mordió al hombre. |
| Question |
V-S or SVO with intonation |
¿Mordió el perro al hombre? |
| Subordinate |
SVO |
…que el perro mordió al hombre |
3. Case System
| Case |
Where Found |
Example |
| None on nouns |
— |
— |
| Pronouns |
Subject/object forms |
yo/me, él/lo/le |
Note: “Personal a” marks animate direct
objects: Veo a Juan.
4. Gender System
| Gender |
Typical Ending |
Example |
| Masculine |
-o |
el libro (the book) |
| Feminine |
-a |
la mesa (the table) |
Note: Many exceptions exist (el día, la
mano).
5. Number System
| Number |
Marking |
Example |
| Singular |
Unmarked |
libro |
| Plural |
-s or -es |
libros, ciudades |
6. Article System
| Article |
Masculine |
Feminine |
Plural |
| Definite |
el |
la |
los/las |
| Indefinite |
un |
una |
unos/unas |
7. Verb Features
| Feature |
Details |
| Conjugations |
3: -ar, -er, -ir |
| Person/Number |
6 forms per tense |
| Tenses |
Present, imperfect, preterite (aorist), future, conditional |
| Compound |
haber + past participle |
| Moods |
Indicative, subjunctive (extensive), imperative |
| Voices |
Active; passive with ser + participle (less common) |
8. Agreement Rules
| What Agrees |
With What |
Example |
| Article |
Noun (gender, number) |
el libro, la mesa, los libros |
| Adjective |
Noun (gender, number) |
el libro rojo, la mesa
roja |
| Verb |
Subject (person, number) |
Yo hablo, ellos
hablan |
| Past participle |
With ser passive (gender, number) |
La carta fue escrita |
9. Key Distinguishing
Features
- Pro-drop: subject pronouns often omitted (Hablo = I
speak)
- Two verbs “to be”: ser (essential) / estar
(state/location)
- Extensive subjunctive use in subordinate clauses
- Preterite vs. imperfect distinction (aorist vs. imperfective)
- Reflexive constructions very common
French
1. Language Type
Moderately synthetic — verb inflection significant
(though often silent); limited noun inflection.
2. Word Order
| Type |
Order |
Example |
| Declarative |
SVO (fairly fixed) |
Le chien a mordu l’homme. |
| Question |
Inversion or est-ce que |
Le chien a-t-il mordu…? |
| Subordinate |
SVO |
…que le chien a mordu l’homme |
3. Case System
| Case |
Where Found |
Example |
| None on nouns |
— |
— |
| Pronouns |
Subject/object forms |
je/me, il/le/lui |
4. Gender System
| Gender |
Clues |
Example |
| Masculine |
Various endings |
le livre (the book) |
| Feminine |
Often -e, -ion, -té |
la table (the table) |
Note: Gender less predictable than Spanish; must be
learned with each noun.
5. Number System
| Number |
Marking |
Example |
| Singular |
Unmarked |
livre |
| Plural |
-s (usually silent) |
livres [livʁ] |
Note: Plural often marked by article/adjective
rather than noun ending in speech.
6. Article System
| Article |
Masculine |
Feminine |
Plural |
| Definite |
le (l’) |
la (l’) |
les |
| Indefinite |
un |
une |
des |
| Partitive |
du |
de la |
des |
7. Verb Features
| Feature |
Details |
| Groups |
1st (-er), 2nd (-ir with -iss-), 3rd
(irregular) |
| Person/Number |
6 forms (many sound identical) |
| Tenses |
Present, imperfect, passé composé, passé simple, future,
conditional |
| Compound |
avoir/être + past participle |
| Moods |
Indicative, subjunctive, imperative, conditional |
| Voices |
Active; passive with être + participle |
8. Agreement Rules
| What Agrees |
With What |
Example |
| Article |
Noun (gender, number) |
le livre, la table, les livres |
| Adjective |
Noun (gender, number) |
le livre vert, la table verte |
| Verb |
Subject (person, number) |
Je parle, ils
parlent |
| Past participle |
With être verbs and preceding direct objects |
Elle est allée; la lettre que j’ai
écrite |
9. Key Distinguishing
Features
- Subject pronouns obligatory (unlike Spanish)
- Liaison: final consonants pronounced before vowels
- Passé composé vs. passé simple: compound form standard in
speech
- Ne…pas negation (though ne often dropped in speech)
- Many silent letters; spelling-pronunciation gap large
Latin
1. Language Type
Highly synthetic — extensive inflection on nouns,
adjectives, pronouns, and verbs.
2. Word Order
| Type |
Order |
Example |
| Declarative |
Free (SOV typical) |
Canis virum momordit. |
| Question |
Free + particle (-ne) |
Mordítne canis virum? |
| Subordinate |
Verb-final common |
…quod canis virum momorderit |
Note: Case endings, not word order, indicate
grammatical function.
3. Case System
| Case |
Function |
Example |
| Nominative |
Subject |
mīles (the soldier) |
| Vocative |
Direct address |
mīles! (O soldier!) |
| Accusative |
Direct object; motion toward |
mīlitem (the soldier) |
| Genitive |
Possession; “of” |
mīlitis (of the soldier) |
| Dative |
Indirect object; “to/for” |
mīlitī (to the soldier) |
| Ablative |
Means, manner, separation |
mīlite (by/with the soldier) |
| Locative |
Location (vestigial) |
Rōmae (at Rome) |
4. Gender System
| Gender |
Types |
Example |
| Masculine |
Many 2nd decl. (-us); most agents |
dominus (master) |
| Feminine |
Most 1st decl. (-a); abstract nouns |
puella (girl) |
| Neuter |
Many 2nd decl. (-um); 3rd decl. various |
bellum (war) |
5. Number System
| Number |
Marking |
Example |
| Singular |
Varies by declension |
mīles |
| Plural |
Varies by declension |
mīlitēs |
6. Article System
| Article |
Form |
| Definite |
None |
| Indefinite |
None |
Note: Rēx can mean “the king,” “a king,” or
simply “king.”
7. Verb Features
| Feature |
Details |
| Conjugations |
4: 1st (-āre), 2nd (-ēre), 3rd (-ere),
4th (-īre) |
| Person/Number |
6 forms per tense |
| Tenses |
Present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect, future perfect |
| Moods |
Indicative, subjunctive, imperative |
| Voices |
Active, passive (synthetic in most tenses) |
| Principal parts |
4: amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum |
8. Agreement Rules
| What Agrees |
With What |
Example |
| Adjective |
Noun (case, number, gender) |
bonus mīles, bona puella |
| Verb |
Subject (person, number) |
Mīles pugnat, mīlitēs pugnant |
| Relative pronoun |
Antecedent (number, gender); own clause (case) |
mīles quem vīdī |
9. Key Distinguishing
Features
- Free word order: meaning from endings, not position
- No articles
- Accusative + infinitive for indirect statement
- Ablative absolute construction
- Extensive use of subjunctive in subordinate clauses
- Deponent verbs: passive form, active meaning
German
1. Language Type
Moderately synthetic — case marking on articles and
adjectives; moderate verb inflection.
2. Word Order
| Type |
Order |
Example |
| Main clause |
V2 (verb second) |
Der Hund biss den Mann. |
| Question |
V1 (verb first) |
Biss der Hund den Mann? |
| Subordinate |
Verb-final |
…dass der Hund den Mann biss |
3. Case System
| Case |
Function |
Definite Article (Masc) |
| Nominative |
Subject |
der |
| Accusative |
Direct object |
den |
| Genitive |
Possession |
des |
| Dative |
Indirect object |
dem |
Note: Nouns show case mainly via article; some
masculine nouns add -n/-en in non-nominative cases.
4. Gender System
| Gender |
Article |
Example |
| Masculine |
der |
der Mann (the man) |
| Feminine |
die |
die Frau (the woman) |
| Neuter |
das |
das Kind (the child) |
5. Number System
| Number |
Marking |
Example |
| Singular |
Varies |
das Buch |
| Plural |
Varies (-e, -er, -en, -s, umlaut) |
die Bücher |
6. Article System
| Article |
Masc |
Fem |
Neut |
Plural |
| Definite (nom) |
der |
die |
das |
die |
| Indefinite (nom) |
ein |
eine |
ein |
— |
Note: Articles decline for all four cases.
7. Verb Features
| Feature |
Details |
| Types |
Weak (regular), strong (vowel change), mixed |
| Person/Number |
6 forms (some identical) |
| Tenses |
Präsens, Präteritum, Perfekt, Plusquamperfekt, Futur I, Futur
II |
| Compound |
haben/sein + Partizip II |
| Moods |
Indikativ, Konjunktiv I, Konjunktiv II, Imperativ |
| Voices |
Active; passive with werden + Partizip II |
8. Agreement Rules
| What Agrees |
With What |
Example |
| Article |
Noun (case, number, gender) |
der Mann (nom), den Mann (acc) |
| Adjective |
Noun (case, number, gender) — weak/mixed/strong endings |
der gute Mann, ein
guter Mann |
| Verb |
Subject (person, number) |
Ich gehe, sie gehen |
9. Key Distinguishing
Features
- V2 word order in main clauses: verb always second position
- Verb-final in subordinate clauses
- Adjective endings depend on what precedes (strong/weak/mixed)
- Compound nouns very common: Handschuh (hand-shoe =
glove)
- Subject pronouns required
- Modal verbs: können, dürfen, müssen, sollen, wollen,
mögen
Ancient Greek
1. Language Type
Highly synthetic — extensive inflection on nouns,
adjectives, pronouns, and verbs.
2. Word Order
| Type |
Order |
Example |
| Declarative |
Free (SOV common) |
ὁ κύων τὸν ἄνδρα ἔδακεν. |
| Question |
Free + particle (ἆρα, ἦ) |
ἆρα ὁ κύων ἔδακε…; |
| Subordinate |
Various |
…ὅτι ὁ κύων τὸν ἄνδρα ἔδακεν |
3. Case System
| Case |
Function |
Example (ὁ στρατιώτης) |
| Nominative |
Subject |
ὁ στρατιώτης |
| Vocative |
Direct address |
ὦ στρατιῶτα |
| Accusative |
Direct object; extent |
τὸν στρατιώτην |
| Genitive |
Possession; source; partitive |
τοῦ στρατιώτου |
| Dative |
Indirect object; location; means |
τῷ στρατιώτῃ |
Note: Dative merges some functions of Latin
ablative.
4. Gender System
| Gender |
Types |
Example |
| Masculine |
1st/2nd/3rd declension |
ὁ στρατηγός (the general) |
| Feminine |
1st/3rd declension |
ἡ θεά (the goddess) |
| Neuter |
2nd/3rd declension |
τὸ δῶρον (the gift) |
5. Number System
| Number |
Marking |
Example |
| Singular |
Varies |
ὁ στρατιώτης |
| Dual |
Special endings (rare) |
τὼ στρατιώτα (the two soldiers) |
| Plural |
Varies |
οἱ στρατιῶται |
6. Article System
| Article |
Masc |
Fem |
Neut |
| Definite (nom sg) |
ὁ |
ἡ |
τό |
| Indefinite |
None |
None |
None |
Note: The article is essential for marking
attributive position.
7. Verb Features
| Feature |
Details |
| Types |
-ω (thematic), -μι (athematic) |
| Person/Number |
6 forms (+ dual in some tenses) |
| Tense-Aspects |
Present, imperfect, future, aorist, perfect, pluperfect |
| Moods |
Indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative |
| Voices |
Active, middle, passive |
| Principal parts |
Up to 6 |
8. Agreement Rules
| What Agrees |
With What |
Example |
| Article |
Noun (case, number, gender) |
ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἀνήρ |
| Adjective |
Noun (case, number, gender) |
ἡ ἀγαθὴ γυνή |
| Verb |
Subject (person, number) |
γράφω, γράφομεν |
| Relative pronoun |
Antecedent (number, gender); own clause (case) |
ὁ ἀνὴρ ὃν εἶδον |
9. Key Distinguishing
Features
- Aspect system: Aorist (simple/complete)
vs. imperfect (ongoing) vs. perfect (resultant state)
- Middle voice: Subject acts on/for itself
(λούομαι = I wash myself)
- Article marks attributive position: ὁ ἀγαθὸς
ἀνήρ (attributive) vs. ὁ ἀνὴρ ἀγαθός (predicative)
- Optative mood: For wishes, potential, and indirect
speech in past contexts
- Particles: μέν…δέ, γάρ,
ἄν add nuance
- Dual number: For pairs (archaic in Attic)
- Augment: Past tenses marked by prefix (ἐ-)
Comparative Tables
Cases by Language
| Case |
English |
Spanish |
French |
Latin |
German |
Greek |
| Nominative |
Pronouns |
— |
— |
✓ |
✓ |
✓ |
| Accusative |
Pronouns |
— |
— |
✓ |
✓ |
✓ |
| Genitive |
Pronouns + -’s |
— |
— |
✓ |
✓ |
✓ |
| Dative |
— |
— |
— |
✓ |
✓ |
✓ |
| Ablative |
— |
— |
— |
✓ |
— |
— |
| Vocative |
— |
— |
— |
✓ |
— |
✓ |
| Locative |
— |
— |
— |
✓ |
— |
— |
Gender by Language
| Feature |
English |
Spanish |
French |
Latin |
German |
Greek |
| Number of genders |
0¹ |
2 |
2 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
| Genders |
— |
M, F |
M, F |
M, F, N |
M, F, N |
M, F, N |
| Adjective agreement |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
| Article agreement |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
— |
Yes |
Yes |
¹ Natural gender in pronouns only
Verb Features by Language
| Feature |
English |
Spanish |
French |
Latin |
German |
Greek |
| Person/number forms |
2 |
6 |
6 |
6 |
6 |
6+ |
| Conjugation classes |
2² |
3 |
3 |
4 |
2³ |
2 |
| Synthetic tenses |
2 |
5 |
5 |
6 |
2 |
6 |
| Compound tenses |
Many |
5 |
5 |
4 |
4 |
— |
| Subjunctive |
Vestigial |
Active |
Active |
Active |
Limited |
Active |
| Optative |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Yes |
| Middle voice |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Yes |
| Aorist |
No |
Yes⁴ |
Yes⁵ |
No⁶ |
No |
Yes |
² Regular (-ed) and irregular ³ Weak and strong ⁴ Preterite
(pretérito indefinido) ⁵ Passé simple (literary) ⁶ Merged with
perfect
Word Order Summary
| Language |
Main Clause |
Subordinate |
Flexibility |
| English |
SVO |
SVO |
Low |
| Spanish |
SVO |
SVO |
Moderate |
| French |
SVO |
SVO |
Low-Moderate |
| Latin |
(SOV typical) |
Verb-final typical |
High |
| German |
V2 |
Verb-final |
Moderate |
| Greek |
(SOV typical) |
Various |
High |
Subject Pronoun Usage
| Language |
Pronouns Required? |
Notes |
| English |
Yes |
It is raining (not Is raining) |
| Spanish |
No (pro-drop) |
Hablo = I speak |
| French |
Yes |
Je parle required |
| Latin |
No (pro-drop) |
Verb endings indicate person |
| German |
Yes |
Ich spreche required |
| Greek |
No (pro-drop) |
Verb endings indicate person |
Notes:
- “Synthetic” languages express grammatical relationships primarily
through inflection (word endings); “analytic” languages use word order
and helper words.
- The number of case forms varies: some languages have lost cases that
others retain.
- “Pro-drop” means subject pronouns can be omitted because the verb
ending indicates person.
- Spanish and French preterite/passé simple function as aorist
(viewing past action as complete event), though the term “aorist” is
traditionally used only for Greek.
Previous: Appendix A:
Glossary
Next: Appendix C:
Language Families and Borrowing