Punctuation and Sentence Boundaries

Before you can parse a sentence, you must identify where it begins and ends. Punctuation marks are the primary guides.

Sentence-Ending Punctuation

The Ellipsis (…)

The ellipsis indicates omission or trailing off:

Parsing note: An ellipsis does not necessarily end a sentence. Check the context.

Internal Punctuation

These marks appear within sentences and do NOT end them.

The Comma (,)

The Oxford comma: The comma before “and” in a list (apples, oranges, and pears) is optional but aids clarity.

Parsing note: Commas separate elements but do not indicate separate sentences.

The Semicolon (;)

The semicolon has two main uses:

Use 1: Joining Independent Clauses

A semicolon joins two clauses that are grammatically complete sentences but are so closely related in meaning that the writer chooses not to separate them with a full stop.

Test: If you can replace the semicolon with a full stop and both parts remain complete sentences, the semicolon is correct.

Parsing example: The king was weary; the battle had lasted three days.

Key point: Parse each clause as an independent sentence. The semicolon signals two complete thoughts presented together.

Contrast — the comma splice (incorrect):

A comma alone cannot join two independent clauses: - The king was weary, the battle had lasted three days. (comma splice — incorrect) - The king was weary; the battle had lasted three days. (semicolon — correct) - The king was weary, for the battle had lasted three days. (comma + conjunction — correct) - The king was weary. The battle had lasted three days. (two sentences — correct)

Use 2: Separating Items in Complex Lists

Semicolons separate list items in two situations:

A. When list items already contain commas:

Without semicolons, this would be ambiguous: - The committee included Dr Smith, the chairman, Mrs Jones, the treasurer, and Mr Brown, the secretary. (ambiguous — is “the chairman” another person?) - The committee included Dr Smith, the chairman; Mrs Jones, the treasurer; and Mr Brown, the secretary. (clear)

B. When listing independent clauses:

When you have a list of complete clauses (not just phrases), semicolons separate them:

The bread and cabbage dish was excellent; the chocolate croquembouche was divine; and the conversation was lively.

This differs from Use 1 because it’s a list of three items (which happen to be clauses), not merely two related thoughts. The final and signals a list structure.

Note: Do not replace commas with semicolons in ordinary lists where items are simple phrases without internal commas: - I bought apples; oranges; and pears. (incorrect) - I bought apples, oranges, and pears. (correct)

The Colon (:)

The colon introduces something that follows from what precedes it.

Parsing colons:

Example: The verdict was clear: the defendant was guilty.

Note: After a colon, the second element may or may not be a complete clause: - He wanted one thing: sleep. (NP after colon) - He wanted one thing: to sleep. (Infinitive phrase after colon) - He wanted one thing: he wanted to sleep. (Full clause after colon)

The Dash (— and –)

Two types of dash exist:

The Em Dash (—)

Parsing note: Content between paired dashes is an interpolation (inserted material). Parse the main sentence first, then the interpolated material separately.

Example: The general—a man of few words—said nothing.

Main clause: The general said nothing. (SVO) Interpolation: a man of few words (NP, appositive to general)

The En Dash (–)

The Hyphen (-)

The hyphen joins words or parts of words.

Parsing note: Hyphenated compounds function as single words. Well-known is a single adjective modifying author.

The Apostrophe (’)

The apostrophe has two main functions:

1. Possession (Genitive)

Parsing note: The possessive functions as a determiner + genitive marker. The king’s crown = the crown of the king.

2. Contractions

Common error: it’s (= it is/has) vs. its (possessive, no apostrophe).

Quotation Marks (” ” and ’ ’)

Quotation marks enclose direct speech and titles.

British vs. American Conventions

Parsing Quoted Speech

Example: “I shall return,” said the general.

Example: The general said that he would return.

Brackets and Parentheses

Parsing note: Content in parentheses or brackets is grammatically separate from the main sentence.

The Slash (/)

Punctuation in Other Languages

Spanish

The inverted marks are essential — they tell the reader from the start that the sentence is a question or exclamation, useful in long sentences.

French

The pre-punctuation space is mandatory in formal French writing.

Latin

When reading classical texts, you must parse based on grammar alone. Modern editions help by adding punctuation.

German

The comma before subordinate clauses is obligatory, not optional as in English.

Ancient Greek

The Greek semicolon-as-question-mark is the most confusing feature for beginners.

Sentence Boundary Algorithm

When facing a long passage, follow this process:

1. FIND terminal punctuation (. ? !)
   → This marks the END of a sentence
   → But check for abbreviations (Dr., etc., i.e.)

2. CHECK for semicolons (;)
   → Each semicolon separates independent clauses
   → Parse each clause as a complete unit

3. CHECK for colons (:)
   → What follows may be a clause, phrase, or list
   → Parse main clause first, then what follows

4. IDENTIFY commas (,)
   → These separate elements within a sentence
   → Do NOT treat as sentence boundaries

5. BRACKET parenthetical material
   → (parentheses) and —dashes— contain supplementary info
   → Parse main sentence first, then interpolations

6. HANDLE quotations
   → Quoted speech is embedded within the reporting clause
   → Identify the reporting verb (said, asked, replied)

Practice: Identifying Sentence Structure

Passage: The army advanced; however, the enemy was prepared. They had fortified the ridge—a natural stronghold—and positioned their archers: three ranks deep, with cavalry on the flanks.

Step 1: Find sentence boundaries

Step 2: Parse sentence 1

Two independent clauses joined by semicolon: 1. The army advanced. — SV 2. however, the enemy was prepared. — Adverb + SVC

Step 3: Parse sentence 2

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Next: Chapter 1: Nouns