Chapter 7: Clauses

English	Spanish	French	Latin	German	Greek
clause	oración, cláusula	proposition	sententia, clausula	Satz, Teilsatz	πρότασις (protasis)

What Is a Clause?

A clause is a syntactic unit containing a subject and a predicate (typically a finite verb).

Comparison: - Phrase: the tall soldier — no finite verb, not a clause - Clause: the soldier fights — subject + finite verb = clause

Clause Types: Independent vs. Dependent

Type	Definition	Example
Independent (main) clause	Can stand alone as a sentence	The soldier fights.
Dependent (subordinate) clause	Cannot stand alone; depends on a main clause	…because he was ordered to

Independent Clauses

An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can be a sentence on its own.

English examples: - The dog barked. - She wrote a letter. - Rome fell in 476 AD.

Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause cannot stand alone. It is introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun.

English examples: - …because he was tired (adverbial clause) - …who wrote the letter (relative clause) - …that she would arrive (noun clause)

English Clause Structure

Basic Clause Patterns

English has several basic clause patterns, determined by the verb type:

Pattern	Structure	Example
SV	Subject + Verb	Birds sing.
SVO	Subject + Verb + Object	The cat caught the mouse.
SVC	Subject + Verb + Complement	She is a doctor.
SVA	Subject + Verb + Adverbial	He lives in London.
SVOO	Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object	She gave him a book.
SVOC	Subject + Verb + Object + Object Complement	They elected her president.
SVOA	Subject + Verb + Object + Adverbial	She put the book on the table.

Key: - S = Subject - V = Verb - O = Object - C = Complement - A = Adverbial

Parsing English Clauses

Example 1: The old professor gave his students a difficult assignment.

Element	Function	Notes
The old professor	Subject (NP)	head = professor
gave	Verb	past tense, ditransitive
his students	Indirect Object (NP)	recipient
a difficult assignment	Direct Object (NP)	thing given

Pattern: SVOO

Example 2: The committee appointed her chairperson.

Element	Function	Notes
The committee	Subject (NP)
appointed	Verb	past tense
her	Direct Object (NP)	person appointed
chairperson	Object Complement (NP)	role assigned

Pattern: SVOC

Types of Dependent Clauses

1. Adverbial Clauses

English	Spanish	French	Latin	German	Greek
adverbial clause	oración subordinada adverbial	proposition subordonnée circonstancielle	—	Adverbialsatz	ἐπιρρηματικὴ πρότασις (epirrēmatikē protasis)

An adverbial clause modifies the verb of the main clause, answering questions like when?, where?, why?, how?, or under what condition?

Types of Adverbial Clauses

Type	Introducing Words	Example
Time	when, while, before, after, since, until, as soon as	When the bell rang, we left.
Place	where, wherever	I’ll go wherever you go.
Reason/Cause	because, since, as	She stayed home because she was ill.
Purpose	so that, in order that	He studied hard so that he would pass.
Result	so…that, such…that	He was so tired that he fell asleep.
Condition	if, unless, provided that	If it rains, we’ll stay inside.
Concession	although, though, even though	Although he was tired, he continued.
Comparison	as, than, as…as	She runs faster than I do.
Manner	as, as if, as though	He acted as if he knew everything.

Adverbial Clauses in French and Spanish

French and Spanish use similar structures to English, with subordinating conjunctions introducing the dependent clause:

Type	French	Spanish
Time	Quand il est arrivé, je suis parti.	Cuando llegó, me fui.
Reason	Il reste parce qu’il est fatigué.	Se queda porque está cansado.
Purpose	Il travaille pour que sa famille vive bien.	Trabaja para que su familia viva bien.
Condition	S’il pleut, je resterai.	Si llueve, me quedaré.
Concession	Bien qu’il soit fatigué, il continue.	Aunque esté cansado, continúa.

Note: French and Spanish use the subjunctive mood in certain adverbial clauses (purpose, some concessive clauses), similar to Latin.

Adverbial Clauses in Latin

Latin uses the subjunctive mood in many adverbial clauses:

Type	Conjunction	Mood	Example
Purpose	ut (positive), nē (negative)	Subjunctive	Vēnit ut vidēret. (He came to see.)
Result	ut	Subjunctive	Tam fessus erat ut dormīret. (He was so tired that he slept.)
Cause (alleged)	cum	Subjunctive	Cum aeger esset, nōn vēnit. (Since he was ill, he didn’t come.)
Concession	cum, quamquam	Subj. / Indic.	Cum fessus esset, labōrābat. (Although tired, he worked.)
Condition (real)	sī	Indicative	Sī pluit, domī manēbō. (If it rains, I’ll stay at home.)
Condition (unreal)	sī	Subjunctive	Sī dīves essem, domum emerem. (If I were rich, I’d buy a house.)
Time	cum (circumstantial)	Subjunctive	Cum Rōmam vēnisset, ad Caesarem iit. (When he arrived at Rome, he went to Caesar.)

Adverbial Clauses in Greek

Greek also uses moods to distinguish clause types:

Type	Conjunction	Construction	Example
Purpose	ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως	Subjunctive (primary)	ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδῃ (He came to see.)
Purpose	ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως	Optative (secondary)	ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδοι (He came to see.)
Result	ὥστε	Infinitive (natural)	οὕτω σοφός ἐστιν ὥστε πάντας θαυμάζειν
Result	ὥστε	Indicative (actual)	οὕτω σοφός ἦν ὥστε πάντες ἐθαύμαζον
Time	ὅτε, ἐπεί	Indicative	ὅτε ἦλθεν, εἶδον αὐτόν (When he came, I saw him.)
Condition	εἰ	See conditional types below

2. Relative Clauses

English	Spanish	French	Latin	German	Greek
relative clause	oración de relativo	proposition relative	sententia relātīva	Relativsatz	ἀναφορικὴ πρότασις

A relative clause modifies a noun (the antecedent). It is introduced by a relative pronoun.

English Relative Clauses

Type	Pronoun	Example
Defining (restrictive)	who, which, that	The man who called* is here.*
Non-defining (non-restrictive)	who, which	My brother, who lives in Paris, is visiting.

Defining clauses are essential to identify the noun; non-defining clauses add extra information.

French and Spanish Relative Clauses

Type	French	Spanish
Defining (subject)	L’homme qui parle* est mon père.*	El hombre que habla* es mi padre.*
Defining (object)	Le livre que j’ai lu* est bon.*	El libro que leí* es bueno.*
Non-defining	Mon frère, qui habite à Paris, arrive.	Mi hermano, que vive en París, llega.

French uses qui for subjects and que for objects. Spanish uses que for both (though quien appears in some contexts).

Latin Relative Clauses

The relative pronoun quī, quae, quod agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but takes its case from its function in the relative clause.

Example: Puella quam vīdī pulchra est. (The girl whom I saw is beautiful.)

Word	Analysis
Puella	nom. sg. fem. — subject of main clause
quam	acc. sg. fem. — direct object of vīdī
vīdī	1sg perfect — “I saw”
pulchra	nom. sg. fem. — predicate adjective
est	3sg present — “is”

The relative pronoun quam is: - Feminine singular (agrees with puella) - Accusative (object of vīdī)

Greek Relative Clauses

Greek works similarly with ὅς, ἥ, ὅ:

Example: ὁ ἀνὴρ ὃν εἶδον σοφός ἐστιν. (The man whom I saw is wise.)

Word	Analysis
ὁ ἀνήρ	nom. sg. masc. — subject of main clause
ὅν	acc. sg. masc. — object of εἶδον
εἶδον	1sg aorist — “I saw”
σοφός	nom. sg. masc. — predicate
ἐστιν	3sg present — “is”

3. Noun Clauses (Complement Clauses)

English	Spanish	French	Latin	German	Greek
noun clause	oración sustantiva	proposition complétive	—	Inhaltssatz	ὀνοματικὴ πρότασις (onomatikē protasis)

A noun clause functions as a noun — it can be a subject, object, or complement.

Types of Noun Clauses in English

Type	Example
That-clause	I know that she is coming.
Wh-clause (indirect question)	I wonder who wrote this.
If/whether-clause	I don’t know whether he will come.
To-infinitive clause	I want to leave.
-ing clause	I enjoy reading books.

Spanish and French Noun Clauses

Spanish and French use que to introduce noun clauses, often requiring the subjunctive after certain verbs:

Language	Example	Translation	Mood
Spanish	Sé que viene.	I know he is coming.	indicative
Spanish	Quiero que venga.	I want him to come.	subjunctive
Spanish	Dudo que venga.	I doubt he is coming.	subjunctive
French	Je sais qu’il vient.	I know he is coming.	indicative
French	Je veux qu’il vienne.	I want him to come.	subjunctive
French	Je doute qu’il vienne.	I doubt he is coming.	subjunctive

Note: Spanish and French require the subjunctive after verbs expressing doubt, desire, emotion, or necessity — unlike Latin which uses the accusative + infinitive for indirect statements regardless of the verb.

Latin Indirect Statement (Accusative + Infinitive)

Latin uses the accusative and infinitive construction for reported speech and thought:

Example: Dīcō eum venīre. (I say that he is coming.)

Word	Analysis
Dīcō	1sg present — “I say”
eum	acc. sg. masc. — subject of infinitive
venīre	present infinitive — “to come”

Tense in the infinitive is relative to the main verb: - Present infinitive = same time as main verb - Perfect infinitive = before main verb - Future infinitive = after main verb

Latin	Analysis	Translation
Dīcō eum venīre.	present inf.	I say he is coming.
Dīcō eum vēnisse.	perfect inf.	I say he came / has come.
Dīcō eum ventūrum esse.	future inf.	I say he will come.

Greek Indirect Statement

Greek uses several constructions:

Verb Type	Construction	Example
Verbs of saying	ὅτι/ὡς + indicative	λέγει ὅτι ἔρχεται (He says that he is coming.)
Verbs of thinking	accusative + infinitive	νομίζω αὐτὸν ἔρχεσθαι (I think he is coming.)
Verbs of perceiving	accusative + participle	ὁρῶ αὐτὸν ἐρχόμενον (I see him coming.)

Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences (“if…then” constructions) are complex enough to warrant their own chapter. They involve careful coordination of mood and tense across all six languages.

See Chapter 7A: Conditional Sentences for full coverage of: - The four English conditional types (zero, first, second, third) - Spanish, French, and German conditionals - Latin conditional types (simple, future vivid/less vivid, contrary-to-fact) - Greek conditional types with the particle ἄν - Mixed conditionals - Parsing worked examples

Sentence Types

Simple Sentence

One independent clause.

The soldier fights.

Compound Sentence

Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.

The soldier fights, and the enemy retreats.

Clause 1	Conjunction	Clause 2
The soldier fights	and	the enemy retreats

Complex Sentence

One independent clause + one or more dependent clauses.

The soldier fights because he loves his country.

Main Clause	Subordinate Clause
The soldier fights	because he loves his country

Compound-Complex Sentence

Multiple independent clauses + one or more dependent clauses.

The soldier fights because he loves his country, and the enemy retreats when they see him coming.

Complementation: How Verbs Take Clauses

Different verbs require different kinds of complements. This section covers how verbs take subordinate clauses across languages.

Infinitive Complements

Some verbs take an infinitive as their complement:

Language	Example	Translation
English	I want to go.	—
French	Je veux partir.	I want to leave.
Spanish	Quiero ir.	I want to go.
German	Ich will gehen.	I want to go.
Latin	Volō īre.	I want to go.
Greek	βούλομαι ἰέναι.	I want to go.

Accusative and Infinitive (AcI)

Latin and Greek frequently use an accusative subject + infinitive construction for indirect statements — where English would use a that-clause:

Language	Construction	Literal	Natural Translation
Latin	Dīcō tē venīre.	I say you to-come.	I say that you are coming.
Latin	Crēdō eum sapientem esse.	I believe him wise to-be.	I believe that he is wise.
Greek	λέγω σὲ ἔρχεσθαι.	I say you to-come.	I say that you are coming.

Structure: The subject of the infinitive goes into the accusative case, and the infinitive verb takes the appropriate tense (present, perfect, future).

Verbs taking AcI include verbs of: - Saying: dīcō (say), negō (deny), nūntiō (announce) - Thinking: putō (think), crēdō (believe), existimō (consider) - Perceiving: videō (see), audiō (hear), sentiō (feel)

That-Clauses vs. Infinitives

Languages differ in whether they prefer that-clauses or infinitives:

Context	English	Latin
After to say	that-clause: He says that he is coming.	AcI: Dīcit sē venīre.
After to want	infinitive: He wants to come.	infinitive: Vult venīre.

French uses infinitives when subjects are the same, que-clauses when different: - Je veux partir. — I want to leave. (same subject) - Je veux que tu partes. — I want you to leave. (different subjects; subjunctive)

Spanish follows a similar pattern: - Quiero ir. — I want to go. (same subject) - Quiero que vayas. — I want you to go. (different subjects; subjunctive)

Subjunctive Complements

Romance languages commonly use the subjunctive in subordinate clauses after verbs of wanting, emotion, doubt, or commands:

Language	Example	Translation
French	Je veux qu’il vienne.	I want him to come.
Spanish	Espero que vengas.	I hope you come.
Latin	Imperō ut veniās.	I command that you come.

Latin uses ut + subjunctive (or nē + subjunctive for negative) after verbs of commanding, urging, and asking.

Indirect Questions

Indirect questions use interrogative words but follow the word order of statements:

Language	Direct	Indirect
English	Where is he?	I know where he is.
French	Où est-il?	Je sais où il est.
Spanish	¿Dónde está?	Sé dónde está.
German	Wo ist er?	Ich weiß, wo er ist.
Latin	Ubi est?	Sciō ubi sit. (subjunctive)
Greek	ποῦ ἐστιν;	οἶδα ὅπου ἐστίν.

Note that Latin uses the subjunctive in indirect questions.

Summary: Complementation Patterns

Pattern	Languages	Example
AcI (indirect statement)	Latin, Greek	Dīcō tē venīre.
that + indicative	English, German	I know that he is coming.
que + subjunctive	French, Spanish (after certain verbs)	Je veux qu’il vienne.
Infinitive (same subject)	All	I want to go. / Volō īre.

Summary

Clause Type	Function	Introduced By
Adverbial	Modifies verb	when, because, if, although, etc.
Relative	Modifies noun	who, which, that, quī, ὅς
Noun	Subject/object/complement	that, whether, wh-words

Sentence Type	Structure
Simple	1 independent clause
Compound	2+ independent clauses
Complex	1 independent + 1+ dependent
Compound-complex	2+ independent + 1+ dependent

Previous: Chapter 6: Phrases

Next: Chapter 7A: Conditional Sentences