e# Chapter 6: Clauses
| English | Spanish | French | Latin | German | Greek |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| clause | oración, cláusula | proposition | Satz, Teilsatz | sententia, clausula | πρότασις (protasis) |
What Is a Clause?
A clause is a syntactic unit containing a subject and a predicate (typically a finite verb).
Comparison: - Phrase: the tall soldier — no finite verb, not a clause - Clause: the soldier fights — subject + finite verb = clause
Clause Types: Independent vs. Dependent
| Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Independent (main) clause | Can stand alone as a sentence | The soldier fights. |
| Dependent (subordinate) clause | Cannot stand alone; depends on a main clause | …because he was ordered to |
Independent Clauses
An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can be a sentence on its own.
English examples: - The dog barked. - She wrote a letter. - Rome fell in 476 AD.
Dependent Clauses
A dependent clause cannot stand alone. It is introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun.
English examples: - …because he was tired (adverbial clause) - …who wrote the letter (relative clause) - …that she would arrive (noun clause)
English Clause Structure
Basic Clause Patterns
English has several basic clause patterns, determined by the verb type:
| Pattern | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| SV | Subject + Verb | Birds sing. |
| SVO | Subject + Verb + Object | The cat caught the mouse. |
| SVC | Subject + Verb + Complement | She is a doctor. |
| SVA | Subject + Verb + Adverbial | He lives in London. |
| SVOO | Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object | She gave him a book. |
| SVOC | Subject + Verb + Object + Object Complement | They elected her president. |
| SVOA | Subject + Verb + Object + Adverbial | She put the book on the table. |
Key: - S = Subject - V = Verb - O = Object - C = Complement - A = Adverbial
Parsing English Clauses
Example 1: The old professor gave his students a difficult assignment.
| Element | Function | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| The old professor | Subject (NP) | head = professor |
| gave | Verb | past tense, ditransitive |
| his students | Indirect Object (NP) | recipient |
| a difficult assignment | Direct Object (NP) | thing given |
Pattern: SVOO
Example 2: The committee appointed her chairperson.
| Element | Function | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| The committee | Subject (NP) | |
| appointed | Verb | past tense |
| her | Direct Object (NP) | person appointed |
| chairperson | Object Complement (NP) | role assigned |
Pattern: SVOC
Types of Dependent Clauses
1. Adverbial Clauses
| English | Spanish | French | Latin | German | Greek |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| adverbial clause | oración subordinada adverbial | proposition subordonnée circonstancielle | Adverbialsatz | — | ἐπιρρηματικὴ πρότασις |
An adverbial clause modifies the verb of the main clause, answering questions like when?, where?, why?, how?, or under what condition?
Types of Adverbial Clauses
| Type | Introducing Words | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Time | when, while, before, after, since, until, as soon as | When the bell rang, we left. |
| Place | where, wherever | I’ll go wherever you go. |
| Reason/Cause | because, since, as | She stayed home because she was ill. |
| Purpose | so that, in order that | He studied hard so that he would pass. |
| Result | so…that, such…that | He was so tired that he fell asleep. |
| Condition | if, unless, provided that | If it rains, we’ll stay inside. |
| Concession | although, though, even though | Although he was tired, he continued. |
| Comparison | as, than, as…as | She runs faster than I do. |
| Manner | as, as if, as though | He acted as if he knew everything. |
Adverbial Clauses in Latin
Latin uses the subjunctive mood in many adverbial clauses:
| Type | Conjunction | Mood | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Purpose | ut (positive), nē (negative) | Subjunctive | Vēnit ut vidēret. (He came to see.) |
| Result | ut | Subjunctive | Tam fessus erat ut dormīret. (He was so tired that he slept.) |
| Cause (alleged) | cum | Subjunctive | Cum aeger esset, nōn vēnit. (Since he was ill, he didn’t come.) |
| Concession | cum, quamquam | Subj. / Indic. | Cum fessus esset, labōrābat. (Although tired, he worked.) |
| Condition (real) | sī | Indicative | Sī pluit, domī manēbō. (If it rains, I’ll stay home.) |
| Condition (unreal) | sī | Subjunctive | Sī dīves essem, domum emerem. (If I were rich, I’d buy a house.) |
| Time | cum (circumstantial) | Subjunctive | Cum Rōmam vēnisset, ad Caesarem iit. (When he arrived at Rome, he went to Caesar.) |
Adverbial Clauses in Greek
Greek also uses moods to distinguish clause types:
| Type | Conjunction | Construction | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Purpose | ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως | Subjunctive (primary) | ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδῃ (He came to see.) |
| Purpose | ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως | Optative (secondary) | ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδοι (He came to see.) |
| Result | ὥστε | Infinitive (natural) | οὕτω σοφός ἐστιν ὥστε πάντας θαυμάζειν |
| Result | ὥστε | Indicative (actual) | οὕτω σοφός ἦν ὥστε πάντες ἐθαύμαζον |
| Time | ὅτε, ἐπεί | Indicative | ὅτε ἦλθεν, εἶδον αὐτόν (When he came, I saw him.) |
| Condition | εἰ | See conditional types below |
2. Relative Clauses
| English | Spanish | French | Latin | German | Greek |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| relative clause | oración de relativo | proposition relative | Relativsatz | sententia relātīva | ἀναφορικὴ πρότασις |
A relative clause modifies a noun (the antecedent). It is introduced by a relative pronoun.
English Relative Clauses
| Type | Pronoun | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Defining (restrictive) | who, which, that | The man who called is here. |
| Non-defining (non-restrictive) | who, which | My brother, who lives in Paris, is visiting. |
Defining clauses are essential to identify the noun; non-defining clauses add extra information.
Latin Relative Clauses
The relative pronoun quī, quae, quod agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but takes its case from its function in the relative clause.
Example: Puella quam vīdī pulchra est. (The girl whom I saw is beautiful.)
| Word | Analysis |
|---|---|
| Puella | nom. sg. fem. — subject of main clause |
| quam | acc. sg. fem. — direct object of vīdī |
| vīdī | 1sg perfect — “I saw” |
| pulchra | nom. sg. fem. — predicate adjective |
| est | 3sg present — “is” |
The relative pronoun quam is: - Feminine singular (agrees with puella) - Accusative (object of vīdī)
Greek Relative Clauses
Greek works similarly with ὅς, ἥ, ὅ:
Example: ὁ ἀνὴρ ὃν εἶδον σοφός ἐστιν. (The man whom I saw is wise.)
| Word | Analysis |
|---|---|
| ὁ ἀνήρ | nom. sg. masc. — subject of main clause |
| ὅν | acc. sg. masc. — object of εἶδον |
| εἶδον | 1sg aorist — “I saw” |
| σοφός | nom. sg. masc. — predicate |
| ἐστιν | 3sg present — “is” |
3. Noun Clauses (Complement Clauses)
| English | Spanish | French | Latin | German | Greek |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| noun clause | oración sustantiva | proposition complétive | Inhaltssatz | — | ὀνοματικὴ πρότασις |
A noun clause functions as a noun — it can be a subject, object, or complement.
Types of Noun Clauses in English
| Type | Example |
|---|---|
| That-clause | I know that she is coming. |
| Wh-clause (indirect question) | I wonder who wrote this. |
| If/whether-clause | I don’t know whether he will come. |
| To-infinitive clause | I want to leave. |
| -ing clause | I enjoy reading books. |
Latin Indirect Statement (Accusative + Infinitive)
Latin uses the accusative and infinitive construction for reported speech and thought:
Example: Dīcō eum venīre. (I say that he is coming.)
| Word | Analysis |
|---|---|
| Dīcō | 1sg present — “I say” |
| eum | acc. sg. masc. — subject of infinitive |
| venīre | present infinitive — “to come” |
Tense in the infinitive is relative to the main verb: - Present infinitive = same time as main verb - Perfect infinitive = before main verb - Future infinitive = after main verb
| Latin | Analysis | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| Dīcō eum venīre. | present inf. | I say he is coming. |
| Dīcō eum vēnisse. | perfect inf. | I say he came / has come. |
| Dīcō eum ventūrum esse. | future inf. | I say he will come. |
Greek Indirect Statement
Greek uses several constructions:
| Verb Type | Construction | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Verbs of saying | ὅτι/ὡς + indicative | λέγει ὅτι ἔρχεται (He says that he is coming.) |
| Verbs of thinking | accusative + infinitive | νομίζω αὐτὸν ἔρχεσθαι (I think he is coming.) |
| Verbs of perceiving | accusative + participle | ὁρῶ αὐτὸν ἐρχόμενον (I see him coming.) |
Conditional Sentences
Conditional sentences (“if…then” constructions) are complex enough to warrant their own chapter. They involve careful coordination of mood and tense across all six languages.
See Chapter 6A: Conditional Sentences for full coverage of: - The four English conditional types (zero, first, second, third) - Spanish, French, and German conditionals - Latin conditional types (simple, future vivid/less vivid, contrary-to-fact) - Greek conditional types with the particle ἄν - Mixed conditionals - Parsing worked examples
Sentence Types
Simple Sentence
One independent clause.
The soldier fights.
Compound Sentence
Two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.
The soldier fights, and the enemy retreats.
| Clause 1 | Conjunction | Clause 2 |
|---|---|---|
| The soldier fights | and | the enemy retreats |
Complex Sentence
One independent clause + one or more dependent clauses.
The soldier fights because he loves his country.
| Main Clause | Subordinate Clause |
|---|---|
| The soldier fights | because he loves his country |
Compound-Complex Sentence
Multiple independent clauses + one or more dependent clauses.
The soldier fights because he loves his country, and the enemy retreats when they see him coming.
Summary
| Clause Type | Function | Introduced By |
|---|---|---|
| Adverbial | Modifies verb | when, because, if, although, etc. |
| Relative | Modifies noun | who, which, that, quī, ὅς |
| Noun | Subject/object/complement | that, whether, wh-words |
| Sentence Type | Structure |
|---|---|
| Simple | 1 independent clause |
| Compound | 2+ independent clauses |
| Complex | 1 independent + 1+ dependent |
| Compound-complex | 2+ independent + 1+ dependent |
Previous: Chapter 5: Phrases