Chapter 2B: Auxiliary and Irregular Verbs
This chapter presents complete conjugations of the most important verbs in each language: the auxiliaries “to be” and “to have,” plus other essential irregular verbs.
What Is an Auxiliary Verb?
| English | Spanish | French | Latin | German | Greek |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| auxiliary verb | verbo auxiliar | verbe auxiliaire | Hilfsverb | verbum auxiliāre | βοηθητικὸν ῥῆμα |
An auxiliary verb (also called a “helping verb”) combines with other verbs to form compound tenses, passive voice, or other constructions.
English examples: - I have written — have is auxiliary - She is running — is is auxiliary - They will arrive — will is auxiliary - The book was read — was is auxiliary (passive)
The two primary auxiliaries in most European languages are: 1. “To be” — used for passive voice, progressive aspect, and as a copula 2. “To have” — used for perfect tenses
“To Be” in All Languages
English: to be
Indicative:
| Present | Past | Future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I / 1sg | am | was | will be |
| you / 2sg | are | were | will be |
| he, she, it / 3sg | is | was | will be |
| we / 1pl | are | were | will be |
| you / 2pl | are | were | will be |
| they / 3pl | are | were | will be |
Subjunctive:
| Present | Past | |
|---|---|---|
| I / 1sg | be | were |
| you / 2sg | be | were |
| he, she, it / 3sg | be | were |
| we / 1pl | be | were |
| you / 2pl | be | were |
| they / 3pl | be | were |
The present subjunctive (be) appears in mandative constructions: I demand that he be present. The past subjunctive (were) appears in hypotheticals: If I were you…, I wish she were here.
See Chapter 2: Verbs for full coverage of English subjunctive uses.
Past participle: been Present participle: being
Uses: - Copula (linking): She is happy. - Progressive: He is running. - Passive: The letter was written.
Spanish: ser and estar
Spanish has two verbs for “to be,” with distinct meanings:
| Verb | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|
| ser | Permanent/essential qualities, identity, origin, time | Soy médico. (I am a doctor.) |
| estar | Temporary states, location, conditions | Estoy cansado. (I am tired.) |
ser (to be — essential)
Indicative:
| Present | Preterite | Imperfect | Future | Conditional | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| yo / 1sg | soy | fui | era | seré | sería |
| tú / 2sg | eres | fuiste | eras | serás | serías |
| él, ella / 3sg | es | fue | era | será | sería |
| nosotros / 1pl | somos | fuimos | éramos | seremos | seríamos |
| vosotros / 2pl | sois | fuisteis | erais | seréis | seríais |
| ellos / 3pl | son | fueron | eran | serán | serían |
Subjunctive:
| Present | Imperfect (-ra) | Imperfect (-se) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| yo / 1sg | sea | fuera | fuese |
| tú / 2sg | seas | fueras | fueses |
| él, ella / 3sg | sea | fuera | fuese |
| nosotros / 1pl | seamos | fuéramos | fuésemos |
| vosotros / 2pl | seáis | fuerais | fueseis |
| ellos / 3pl | sean | fueran | fuesen |
Imperative: sé (tú), sea (usted), sed (vosotros), sean (ustedes) Past participle: sido Gerund: siendo
estar (to be — state/location)
Indicative:
| Present | Preterite | Imperfect | Future | Conditional | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| yo / 1sg | estoy | estuve | estaba | estaré | estaría |
| tú / 2sg | estás | estuviste | estabas | estarás | estarías |
| él, ella / 3sg | está | estuvo | estaba | estará | estaría |
| nosotros / 1pl | estamos | estuvimos | estábamos | estaremos | estaríamos |
| vosotros / 2pl | estáis | estuvisteis | estabais | estaréis | estaríais |
| ellos / 3pl | están | estuvieron | estaban | estarán | estarían |
Subjunctive:
| Present | Imperfect (-ra) | |
|---|---|---|
| yo / 1sg | esté | estuviera |
| tú / 2sg | estés | estuvieras |
| él, ella / 3sg | esté | estuviera |
| nosotros / 1pl | estemos | estuviéramos |
| vosotros / 2pl | estéis | estuvierais |
| ellos / 3pl | estén | estuvieran |
Past participle: estado Gerund: estando
French: être
Indicative:
| Present | Imperfect | Simple Past | Future | Conditional | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| je / 1sg | suis | étais | fus | serai | serais |
| tu / 2sg | es | étais | fus | seras | serais |
| il, elle / 3sg | est | était | fut | sera | serait |
| nous / 1pl | sommes | étions | fûmes | serons | serions |
| vous / 2pl | êtes | étiez | fûtes | serez | seriez |
| ils, elles / 3pl | sont | étaient | furent | seront | seraient |
Subjunctive:
| Present | Imperfect | |
|---|---|---|
| je / 1sg | sois | fusse |
| tu / 2sg | sois | fusses |
| il, elle / 3sg | soit | fût |
| nous / 1pl | soyons | fussions |
| vous / 2pl | soyez | fussiez |
| ils, elles / 3pl | soient | fussent |
Imperative: sois (tu), soyons (nous), soyez (vous) Past participle: été Present participle: étant
German: sein
Indicative:
| Present | Preterite | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ich / 1sg | bin | war | bin gewesen |
| du / 2sg | bist | warst | bist gewesen |
| er, sie, es / 3sg | ist | war | ist gewesen |
| wir / 1pl | sind | waren | sind gewesen |
| ihr / 2pl | seid | wart | seid gewesen |
| sie, Sie / 3pl | sind | waren | sind gewesen |
Subjunctive I (Konjunktiv I):
| ich / 1sg | sei |
| du / 2sg | seist / seiest |
| er, sie, es / 3sg | sei |
| wir / 1pl | seien |
| ihr / 2pl | seiet |
| sie, Sie / 3pl | seien |
Subjunctive II (Konjunktiv II):
| ich / 1sg | wäre |
| du / 2sg | wär(e)st |
| er, sie, es / 3sg | wäre |
| wir / 1pl | wären |
| ihr / 2pl | wär(e)t |
| sie, Sie / 3pl | wären |
Imperative: sei (du), seid (ihr), seien Sie (formal) Past participle: gewesen Present participle: seiend
Latin: sum, esse, fuī
Latin esse is highly irregular, with forms from two different roots (es- and fu-).
Indicative Active:
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Perfect | Pluperfect | Fut. Perf. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | sum | eram | erō | fuī | fueram | fuerō |
| 2sg | es | erās | eris | fuistī | fuerās | fueris |
| 3sg | est | erat | erit | fuit | fuerat | fuerit |
| 1pl | sumus | erāmus | erimus | fuimus | fuerāmus | fuerimus |
| 2pl | estis | erātis | eritis | fuistis | fuerātis | fueritis |
| 3pl | sunt | erant | erunt | fuērunt | fuerant | fuerint |
Subjunctive:
| Present | Imperfect | Perfect | Pluperfect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | sim | essem | fuerim | fuissem |
| 2sg | sīs | essēs | fuerīs | fuissēs |
| 3sg | sit | esset | fuerit | fuisset |
| 1pl | sīmus | essēmus | fuerīmus | fuissēmus |
| 2pl | sītis | essētis | fuerītis | fuissētis |
| 3pl | sint | essent | fuerint | fuissent |
Imperative: es (sg.), este (pl.) Infinitives: esse (pres.), fuisse (perf.), futūrus esse / fore (fut.) Participle: futūrus, -a, -um (future active only)
Note: Latin esse has no passive voice (it cannot take a direct object). It has no present or perfect participle — ens (“being”) is rare and philosophical.
Greek: εἰμί (to be)
Greek εἰμί is also highly irregular. It has only present, imperfect, and future tenses; for “was” in the aorist sense, Greek uses ἐγενόμην (became).
Indicative:
| Present | Imperfect | Future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | εἰμί | ἦν / ἦ | ἔσομαι |
| 2sg | εἶ | ἦσθα | ἔσῃ / ἔσει |
| 3sg | ἐστί(ν) | ἦν | ἔσται |
| 1pl | ἐσμέν | ἦμεν | ἐσόμεθα |
| 2pl | ἐστέ | ἦτε / ἦστε | ἔσεσθε |
| 3pl | εἰσί(ν) | ἦσαν | ἔσονται |
Subjunctive:
| Present | |
|---|---|
| 1sg | ὦ |
| 2sg | ᾖς |
| 3sg | ᾖ |
| 1pl | ὦμεν |
| 2pl | ἦτε |
| 3pl | ὦσι(ν) |
Optative:
| Present | |
|---|---|
| 1sg | εἴην |
| 2sg | εἴης |
| 3sg | εἴη |
| 1pl | εἴημεν / εἶμεν |
| 2pl | εἴητε / εἶτε |
| 3pl | εἴησαν / εἶεν |
Imperative: ἴσθι (sg.), ἔστε (pl.) Infinitive: εἶναι Participle: ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν (being)
“To Have” in All Languages
English: to have
Indicative:
| Present | Past | Future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| I / 1sg | have | had | will have |
| you / 2sg | have | had | will have |
| he, she, it / 3sg | has | had | will have |
| we / 1pl | have | had | will have |
| you / 2pl | have | had | will have |
| they / 3pl | have | had | will have |
Subjunctive:
| Present | Past | |
|---|---|---|
| I / 1sg | have | had |
| you / 2sg | have | had |
| he, she, it / 3sg | have | had |
| we / 1pl | have | had |
| you / 2pl | have | had |
| they / 3pl | have | had |
The subjunctive is only visible in 3rd person singular present: I insist that he have the documents ready (not “has”). The past subjunctive is identical to the past indicative.
Past participle: had Present participle: having
Uses: - Possession: I have a book. - Perfect tenses: I have seen. - Obligation (with to): I have to go.
Spanish: haber and tener
Spanish has two verbs for “to have”:
| Verb | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|
| haber | Auxiliary for perfect tenses; existential “there is/are” | He comido. (I have eaten.) |
| tener | Possession, physical states | Tengo un libro. (I have a book.) |
haber (to have — auxiliary)
Indicative:
| Present | Preterite | Imperfect | Future | Conditional | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| yo / 1sg | he | hube | había | habré | habría |
| tú / 2sg | has | hubiste | habías | habrás | habrías |
| él, ella / 3sg | ha (hay*) | hubo | había | habrá | habría |
| nosotros / 1pl | hemos | hubimos | habíamos | habremos | habríamos |
| vosotros / 2pl | habéis | hubisteis | habíais | habréis | habríais |
| ellos / 3pl | han | hubieron | habían | habrán | habrían |
*hay is the impersonal form meaning “there is/there are”
Subjunctive:
| Present | Imperfect (-ra) | |
|---|---|---|
| yo / 1sg | haya | hubiera |
| tú / 2sg | hayas | hubieras |
| él, ella / 3sg | haya | hubiera |
| nosotros / 1pl | hayamos | hubiéramos |
| vosotros / 2pl | hayáis | hubierais |
| ellos / 3pl | hayan | hubieran |
Past participle: habido
tener (to have — possession)
Indicative:
| Present | Preterite | Imperfect | Future | Conditional | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| yo / 1sg | tengo | tuve | tenía | tendré | tendría |
| tú / 2sg | tienes | tuviste | tenías | tendrás | tendrías |
| él, ella / 3sg | tiene | tuvo | tenía | tendrá | tendría |
| nosotros / 1pl | tenemos | tuvimos | teníamos | tendremos | tendríamos |
| vosotros / 2pl | tenéis | tuvisteis | teníais | tendréis | tendríais |
| ellos / 3pl | tienen | tuvieron | tenían | tendrán | tendrían |
Past participle: tenido
French: avoir
Indicative:
| Present | Imperfect | Simple Past | Future | Conditional | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| j’ / 1sg | ai | avais | eus | aurai | aurais |
| tu / 2sg | as | avais | eus | auras | aurais |
| il, elle / 3sg | a | avait | eut | aura | aurait |
| nous / 1pl | avons | avions | eûmes | aurons | aurions |
| vous / 2pl | avez | aviez | eûtes | aurez | auriez |
| ils, elles / 3pl | ont | avaient | eurent | auront | auraient |
Subjunctive:
| Present | Imperfect | |
|---|---|---|
| j’ / 1sg | aie | eusse |
| tu / 2sg | aies | eusses |
| il, elle / 3sg | ait | eût |
| nous / 1pl | ayons | eussions |
| vous / 2pl | ayez | eussiez |
| ils, elles / 3pl | aient | eussent |
Imperative: aie (tu), ayons (nous), ayez (vous) Past participle: eu Present participle: ayant
German: haben
Indicative:
| Present | Preterite | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ich / 1sg | habe | hatte | habe gehabt |
| du / 2sg | hast | hattest | hast gehabt |
| er, sie, es / 3sg | hat | hatte | hat gehabt |
| wir / 1pl | haben | hatten | haben gehabt |
| ihr / 2pl | habt | hattet | habt gehabt |
| sie, Sie / 3pl | haben | hatten | haben gehabt |
Subjunctive I:
| ich / 1sg | habe |
| du / 2sg | habest |
| er, sie, es / 3sg | habe |
| wir / 1pl | haben |
| ihr / 2pl | habet |
| sie, Sie / 3pl | haben |
Subjunctive II:
| ich / 1sg | hätte |
| du / 2sg | hättest |
| er, sie, es / 3sg | hätte |
| wir / 1pl | hätten |
| ihr / 2pl | hättet |
| sie, Sie / 3pl | hätten |
Imperative: hab(e) (du), habt (ihr), haben Sie (formal) Past participle: gehabt
Latin: habeō, habēre, habuī, habitum
Latin habēre is a regular second conjugation verb.
Indicative Active:
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Perfect | Pluperfect | Fut. Perf. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | habeō | habēbam | habēbō | habuī | habueram | habuerō |
| 2sg | habēs | habēbās | habēbis | habuistī | habuerās | habueris |
| 3sg | habet | habēbat | habēbit | habuit | habuerat | habuerit |
| 1pl | habēmus | habēbāmus | habēbimus | habuimus | habuerāmus | habuerimus |
| 2pl | habētis | habēbātis | habēbitis | habuistis | habuerātis | habueritis |
| 3pl | habent | habēbant | habēbunt | habuērunt | habuerant | habuerint |
Note: Unlike modern Romance languages, Latin does not use habēre as an auxiliary for perfect tenses. Latin forms perfect tenses synthetically (by inflection), not analytically (with an auxiliary).
Greek: ἔχω (to have)
Indicative Active:
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Aorist | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | ἔχω | εἶχον | ἕξω / σχήσω | ἔσχον | ἔσχηκα |
| 2sg | ἔχεις | εἶχες | ἕξεις | ἔσχες | ἔσχηκας |
| 3sg | ἔχει | εἶχε(ν) | ἕξει | ἔσχε(ν) | ἔσχηκε(ν) |
| 1pl | ἔχομεν | εἴχομεν | ἕξομεν | ἔσχομεν | ἐσχήκαμεν |
| 2pl | ἔχετε | εἴχετε | ἕξετε | ἔσχετε | ἐσχήκατε |
| 3pl | ἔχουσι(ν) | εἶχον | ἕξουσι(ν) | ἔσχον | ἐσχήκασι(ν) |
Note: Like Latin, Ancient Greek does not use ἔχω as a perfect auxiliary. Perfect tenses are formed synthetically.
Other Essential Irregular Verbs
“To Go”
| Language | Infinitive | Present 1sg | Past/Preterite 1sg |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | to go | I go | I went |
| Spanish | ir | voy | fui |
| French | aller | je vais | j’allai |
| German | gehen | ich gehe | ich ging |
| Latin | īre | eō | iī / īvī |
| Greek | ἔρχομαι / εἶμι | ἔρχομαι / εἶμι | ἦλθον |
Latin: eō, īre, iī (īvī), itum
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | eō | ībam | ībō | iī / īvī |
| 2sg | īs | ībās | ībis | īstī / īvistī |
| 3sg | it | ībat | ībit | iit / īvit |
| 1pl | īmus | ībāmus | ībimus | iimus |
| 2pl | ītis | ībātis | ībitis | īstis |
| 3pl | eunt | ībant | ībunt | iērunt |
Compounds: abeō (go away), adeō (go to), exeō (go out), ineō (go in), redeō (return), trānseō (cross)
“To Do / To Make”
| Language | Infinitive | Present 1sg | Past/Preterite 1sg |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | to do / to make | I do | I did |
| Spanish | hacer | hago | hice |
| French | faire | je fais | je fis |
| German | machen / tun | ich mache / tue | ich machte / tat |
| Latin | faciō | faciō | fēcī |
| Greek | ποιέω | ποιῶ | ἐποίησα |
Latin: faciō, facere, fēcī, factum
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | faciō | faciēbam | faciam | fēcī |
| 2sg | facis | faciēbās | faciēs | fēcistī |
| 3sg | facit | faciēbat | faciet | fēcit |
| 1pl | facimus | faciēbāmus | faciēmus | fēcimus |
| 2pl | facitis | faciēbātis | faciētis | fēcistis |
| 3pl | faciunt | faciēbant | facient | fēcērunt |
Passive: fīō, fierī, factus sum (to be made, to become) — an irregular semi-deponent
“To Say / To Tell”
| Language | Infinitive | Present 1sg | Past/Preterite 1sg |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | to say | I say | I said |
| Spanish | decir | digo | dije |
| French | dire | je dis | je dis |
| German | sagen | ich sage | ich sagte |
| Latin | dīcō | dīcō | dīxī |
| Greek | λέγω / φημί | λέγω / φημί | εἶπον / ἔφην |
Latin: dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictum
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | dīcō | dīcēbam | dīcam | dīxī |
| 2sg | dīcis | dīcēbās | dīcēs | dīxistī |
| 3sg | dīcit | dīcēbat | dīcet | dīxit |
| 1pl | dīcimus | dīcēbāmus | dīcēmus | dīximus |
| 2pl | dīcitis | dīcēbātis | dīcētis | dīxistis |
| 3pl | dīcunt | dīcēbant | dīcent | dīxērunt |
“To Want / To Wish”
| Language | Infinitive | Present 1sg | Past/Preterite 1sg |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | to want | I want | I wanted |
| Spanish | querer | quiero | quise |
| French | vouloir | je veux | je voulus |
| German | wollen | ich will | ich wollte |
| Latin | velle | volō | voluī |
| Greek | βούλομαι / ἐθέλω | βούλομαι / ἐθέλω | ἐβουλήθην / ἠθέλησα |
Latin: volō, velle, voluī
| Present | Imperfect | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | volō | volēbam | voluī |
| 2sg | vīs | volēbās | voluistī |
| 3sg | vult | volēbat | voluit |
| 1pl | volumus | volēbāmus | voluimus |
| 2pl | vultis | volēbātis | voluistis |
| 3pl | volunt | volēbant | voluērunt |
Related verbs: - nōlō, nōlle, nōluī — to not want, to be unwilling - mālō, mālle, māluī — to prefer
“To Be Able / Can”
| Language | Infinitive | Present 1sg | Past/Preterite 1sg |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | to be able / can | I can | I could |
| Spanish | poder | puedo | pude |
| French | pouvoir | je peux / puis | je pus |
| German | können | ich kann | ich konnte |
| Latin | posse | possum | potuī |
| Greek | δύναμαι | δύναμαι | ἐδυνήθην |
Latin: possum, posse, potuī
Compound of potis (able) + sum (to be).
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | possum | poteram | poterō | potuī |
| 2sg | potes | poterās | poteris | potuistī |
| 3sg | potest | poterat | poterit | potuit |
| 1pl | possumus | poterāmus | poterimus | potuimus |
| 2pl | potestis | poterātis | poteritis | potuistis |
| 3pl | possunt | poterant | poterunt | potuērunt |
“To Come”
| Language | Infinitive | Present 1sg | Past/Preterite 1sg |
|---|---|---|---|
| English | to come | I come | I came |
| Spanish | venir | vengo | vine |
| French | venir | je viens | je vins |
| German | kommen | ich komme | ich kam |
| Latin | venīre | veniō | vēnī |
| Greek | ἔρχομαι | ἔρχομαι | ἦλθον |
Latin: veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum
| Present | Imperfect | Future | Perfect | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1sg | veniō | veniēbam | veniam | vēnī |
| 2sg | venīs | veniēbās | veniēs | vēnistī |
| 3sg | venit | veniēbat | veniet | vēnit |
| 1pl | venīmus | veniēbāmus | veniēmus | vēnimus |
| 2pl | venītis | veniēbātis | veniētis | vēnistis |
| 3pl | veniunt | veniēbant | venient | vēnērunt |
The German Modal Verbs
German has a special class of auxiliary-like verbs called modal verbs (Modalverben):
| Infinitive | Meaning | Present ich | Preterite ich |
|---|---|---|---|
| können | can, to be able | kann | konnte |
| dürfen | may, to be allowed | darf | durfte |
| müssen | must, to have to | muss | musste |
| sollen | should, ought to | soll | sollte |
| wollen | to want | will | wollte |
| mögen | to like, may | mag | mochte |
These verbs take an infinitive without zu: Ich kann schwimmen (I can swim).
Summary: How Compound Tenses Are Formed
| Language | Perfect Tense Formation | Passive Formation |
|---|---|---|
| English | have + past participle | be + past participle |
| Spanish | haber + past participle | ser + past participle |
| French | avoir/être + past participle | être + past participle |
| German | haben/sein + past participle | werden + past participle |
| Latin | (synthetic — no auxiliary) | (synthetic present system) |
| Greek | (synthetic — no auxiliary) | (synthetic) |
Note: Latin and Ancient Greek form their tenses by inflection, not by combining auxiliaries with participles. The compound constructions emerged later in Vulgar Latin and became standard in the Romance languages.
Previous: Chapter 2A: Conjugation Tables
Next: Chapter 3: Adjectives